Constructing and programming quantum hardware for quantum annealing processes

ABSTRACT

Methods, systems, and apparatus, including computer programs encoded on computer storage media, for constructing and programming quantum hardware for quantum annealing processes.

CLAIM OF PRIORITY

This application is a continuation application of, and claims priority to, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/853,463, filed on Apr. 20, 2020, which is a continuation application of, and claims priority to, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/683,149, now U.S. Pat. No. 10,755,194, filed on Nov. 13, 2019, which is a continuation application of, and claims priority to, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/914,689, now U.S. Pat. No. 10,510,015, filed on Mar. 7, 2018, which is a continuation application of, and claims priority to, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/109,600, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,934,468, filed on Jul. 1, 2016, which application claims priority to PCT Application No. PCT/US2014/072962, filed on Dec. 31, 2014, which application claims priority under 35 USC § 119(e) to U.S. Patent Application Ser. No. 61/985,348, filed on Apr. 28, 2014, and U.S. Patent Application Ser. No. 61/924,207, filed on Jan. 6, 2014. The disclosure of each of the foregoing applications is hereby incorporated by reference.

BACKGROUND

This specification relates to constructing and programming quantum hardware for quantum annealing processes.

SUMMARY

Artificial intelligent tasks can be translated into machine learning optimization problems. To perform an artificial intelligence task, quantum hardware, e.g., a quantum processor, is constructed and programmed to encode the solution to a corresponding machine optimization problem into an energy spectrum of a many-body quantum Hamiltonian characterizing the quantum hardware. For example, the solution is encoded in the ground state of the Hamiltonian. The quantum hardware performs adiabatic quantum computation starting with a known ground state of a known initial Hamiltonian. Over time, as the known initial Hamiltonian evolves into the Hamiltonian for solving the problem, the known ground state evolves and remains at the instantaneous ground state of the evolving Hamiltonian. The energy spectrum or the ground state of the Hamiltonian for solving the problem is obtained at the end of the evolution without diagonalizing the Hamiltonian.

Sometimes the quantum adiabatic computation becomes non-adiabatic due to excitations caused, e.g., by thermal fluctuations. Instead of remaining at the instantaneous ground state, the evolving quantum state initially started at the ground state of the initial Hamiltonian can reach an excited state of the evolving Hamiltonian. The quantum hardware is constructed and programmed to suppress such excitations from an instantaneous ground state to a higher energy state during an early stage of the computation. In addition, the quantum hardware is also constructed and programmed to assist relaxation from higher energy states to lower energy states or the ground state during a later stage of the computation. The robustness of finding the ground state of the Hamiltonian for solving the problem is improved.

The details of one or more embodiments of the subject matter of this specification are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, aspects, and advantages of the subject matter will be apparent from the description, the drawings, and the claims.

DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic perspective view of interacting qubits in a quantum processor.

FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram showing the structures and interactions of two qubits in a quantum processor.

FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram showing the effect of a quantum governor on a quantum annealing process.

FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram showing the interplay of an initial Hamiltonian, a problem Hamiltonian, and a Hamiltonian of a quantum governor chosen for the problem Hamiltonian during a quantum annealing process.

FIG. 5 is a flow diagram of an example process for determining a quantum governor distribution.

FIG. 6 is a flow diagram of an example process for performing an artificial intelligence task.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION Overview

Solutions to hard combinatorial problems, e.g., NP-hard problems and machine learning problems, can be encoded in the ground state of a many-body quantum Hamiltonian system, which is also called a quantum annealer or “QA.” A QA of a system can sometimes be obtained through adiabatic quantum computation, in which the QA is initialized to a ground state of an initial Hamiltonian H, that is known and easy to prepare. Over time, the QA is adiabatically guided to a problem Hamiltonian H_(p) that encodes the problem. In theory, during the adiabatic quantum computation, the QA can remain in the instantaneous ground state of a Hamiltonian H_(total) evolving from H_(i) to H_(p), where H_(total) can be expressed as:

H _(total)=(1−s)H _(i) +sH _(p),

where s is a time dependent control parameter:

s=t/t _(T),

and t_(T) is the total time of the adiabatic quantum computation. The QA will reach the ground state of the problem Hamiltonian H_(p) with certainty, if the evolution of system is sufficiently slow with respect to the intrinsic energy scale of the system.

In reality, the quantum computation may not be completely adiabatic and the QA may reach an excited state of H_(total) during the computation, which can lead to inaccurate result at the end of the quantum computation. For example, in many hard combinatorial optimization problems, e.g., in decision problems, when the problem Hamiltonian demonstrates a phase transition in its computational complexity, the size of a gap between an excited state and the ground state of H_(total) can be small, e.g., exponentially small, with respect to the intrinsic energy scale of the system. In such situations, the QA may undergo a quantum phase transition and can reach a large number, e.g., an exponentially large number, of excited states. In addition, the QA may also deviate from the ground state of H_(total) due to other factors such as quantum fluctuations induced by environmental interactions with the system and system imperfection errors, including control errors and fabrication imperfections. In this specification, the process of driving the QA from the ground state of H_(i) to the ground state of H_(p) is called a QA schedule or a quantum annealing process.

Quantum hardware, such as quantum processors, of this specification includes a quantum chip that defines a quantum governor (“QG”) in addition to H_(i) and H_(p), such that the evolving Hamiltonian H_(total) becomes H_(tot):

H _(tot) =I(t)H _(i) +G(t)H _(G) +P(t)H _(p) +H _(AG-B),

where I(t) and P(t) represent the time-dependency of the initial and problem Hamiltonians, H_(i) and H_(p), respectively; G(t) represents the time-dependency of the QG related Hamiltonian, H_(G); and H_(AG-B) is the interaction of the combined QA-QG system with its surrounding environment, commonly referred to as a bath. Generally it can be assumed that H_(AG-B) is non-zero but constant and well-characterized. In some implementations:

H _(tot)=(1−t)H _(i) +t(1−t)H _(G) +t H _(p) +H _(AG-B)

Generally, the QG can be considered as a class of non-information-bearing degrees of freedom that can be engineered to steer the dissipative dynamics of an information-bearing degree of freedom. In the example of H_(total), the information-bearing degree of freedom is the QA. In particular, a QG can be defined as an auxiliary subsystem with an independent tensor product structure. The QG can be characterized by H_(G), which characterizes both the interaction between information-bearing degree of freedom and the QG and the free Hamiltonian of QG. The QG can interact with the QA coherently and in a non-perturbative manner. The interaction can also demonstrate strong non-Markovian effects.

The quantum hardware is constructed and programmed to allow the QG to navigate the quantum evolution of a disordered quantum annealing hardware at finite temperature in a robust manner and improve the adiabatic quantum computation process. For example, the QG can facilitate driving the QA towards a quantum phase transition, while decoupling the QA from excited states of H_(total) by making the excited states effectively inaccessible by the QA. After the quantum phase transition, the QA enters another phase in which the QA is likely to be frozen in excited states due to quantum localization. The QG can adjust the energy level of the QA to be in tune with vibrational energies of environment to facilitate the QA to relax into a lower energy state or the ground state. Such an adjustment can increase the ground state fidelity, i.e., the fidelity of the QA being in the ground state at the end of the computation, and allow the QA to avoid pre-mature freeze in suboptimal solutions due to quantum localization.

Generally, the QA experiences four phases in a quantum annealing process of the specification, including initialization, excitation, relaxation, and freezing, which are explained in more detailed below. The QG can assist the QA in the first two phases by creating a mismatch between average phonon energy of the bath and an average energy level spacing of the H_(tot) to suppress QA excitations. In the third and fourth stages, the QG can enhance thermal fluctuations by creating an overlap between the spectral densities of the system and the bath. The enhanced thermal fluctuations can allow the QA to have high relaxation rates from higher energy states to lower energy states or to the ground state of H_(tot). In particular, due to quantum localization, the QA may be frozen at non-ground states. The QG can allow the QA to defreeze from the non-ground states.

The QG can be used to achieve universal adiabatic quantum computing when quantum interactions are limited due to either natural or engineered constraints of the quantum hardware. For example, a quantum chip can have engineering constraints such that the Hamiltonian representing the interactions of qubits on the quantum chip becomes a k-local stochastic Hamiltonian. In some implementations, the quantum hardware is constructed and programmed to manipulate the structural and dynamical effects of environmental interactions and disorders, even without any control over the degrees of freedom of the environment.

Generally, the QG is problem-dependent. The quantum hardware of the specification can be programmed to provide different QGs for different problem Hamiltonians. In some implementations, a QG can be determined for a given H_(p) using a quantum control strategy developed based on mean-field and microscopic approaches. In addition or alternatively, the quantum control strategy can also implement random matrix theory and machine learning techniques in determining the QG. The combined QA and QG can be tuned and trained to generate desired statistical distributions of energy spectra for H_(p), such as Poisson, Levy, or Boltzmann distributions.

Example Quantum Hardware

As shown in FIG. 1, in a quantum processor, a programmable quantum chip 100 includes 4 by 4 unit cells 102 of eight qubits 104, connected by programmable inductive couplers as shown by lines connecting different qubits. Each line may represent one or multiple couplers between a pair of qubits. The chip 100 can also include a larger number of unit cells 102, e.g., 8 by 8 or more.

Within each unit cell 102, such as the cell circled with dashed lines and including qubit numbers q₁ to q₈, one or more of the eight qubits 104, e.g., four qubits 104 labeled q₁, q₂, q₅, q₆, are logical qubits for use in computations carried out by the quantum processor. The other qubits 104, e.g., the other four qubits labeled q₃, q₄, q₇, q₈, are control qubits to be programmed to perform the function of the QG of this specification. The control qubits do not participate in the computations for which the logical qubits are configured. In some implementations, in each unit cell 102, half of the qubits are used as control qubits and the other half of the qubits are used as logical qubits. The size of the chip 100 implementing the QG is scalable by increasing the number of unit cells.

In some implementations, the logical qubits and the control qubits have the same construction. In other implementations, the control qubits have simpler or less precise structures than the logical qubits. FIG. 2 shows an example pair of coupled qubits 200, 202 in the same unit cell of a chip. For example, the qubits 200, 202 can correspond to two logical qubits, e.g., qubits q₁, q₅, two control qubits, e.g., qubits q₃, q₇, or a logical qubit, e.g., qubit q₁, and a control qubit, e.g., qubit q₇. In this example, each qubit is a superconducting qubit and includes two parallelly connected Josephson boxes 204 a, 204 b or 208 a, 208 b. Each Josephson box can include a Josephson junction 206 parallelly connected to a capacitance 207. The qubits 200, 202 are subject to an external magnetic field B applied along a e₃ direction perpendicular to the surface of the paper on which the figure is shown; the B field is labeled by the symbol ⊗. A set of inductive couplers 210 laced between the qubits 200, 202 such that the qubits are coupled along the e₃-e₃ directions.

In some implementations, a logical qubit and a control qubit are both constructed using two Josephson boxes connected in parallel. However, the logical qubit can be constructed with a higher precision than the control qubit. The less precisely constructed control qubit can therefore perform the function of the QG at a reduced cost. In other implementations, while a logical qubit is constructed using two Josephson boxes connected in parallel as shown in FIG. 2, a control qubit can be constructed using structures other than a Josephson box, such as a quantum Harmonic oscillator. In the chip 100 of FIG. 1, the control qubits in each unit cell interact with each other and with the logical qubits. These interactions act as a QG to assist the QA characterized by the logical qubits to reach the ground state of H_(p) at the end of a quantum annealing process.

As one example, The Hamiltonian of the QA can be written as:

$H_{QA} = {{{I(t)}{\sum\limits_{i}^{N}\sigma_{i}^{x}}} + {{P(t)}\left( {{- {\sum\limits_{i}^{N}{h_{i}\sigma_{i}^{z}}}} + {\underset{ij}{\sum\limits^{N}}{J_{ij}\sigma_{i}^{z}\sigma_{j}^{z}}}} \right)}}$

where σ_(i) ^(x) and σ_(i) ^(z) are Pauli operator and each represents the spin of the i^(th) qubit along the x direction or the z direction, respectively. h_(i) and J_(ij) are parameters that can be programmed for different problems to be solved by adjusting the coupling provided by the inductive coupler set 210. h_(i) and J_(ij) have real values. N is the total number of logical qubits for computation. The sparsity of the parameter J_(ij) is constrained by the hardware connectivity, i.e., the connectivity of the qubits shown in FIG. 1. For unconnected qubits, the corresponding J_(ij) is 0. Again, I(t) and P(t) represent the time-dependency of initial and problem Hamiltonians, respectively. In a simplified example, I(t) equals (1−s), and P(t) equals s, where s equals t/t_(T).

The additional M control qubits, where M can be the same as N or can be different, introduce additional quantum control mechanisms to the chip 100. The control mechanisms define an auxiliary subsystem that interacts with the QA of H_(SG) or H_(total). The auxiliary subsystem includes tensor product structures and can be characterized by an intrinsic Hamiltonian of QG that commutes with QG-QA interaction Hamiltonian H_(SG). The auxiliary subsystem can be controlled by a global time-varying control knob G(t) and possibly a set of macroscopic programmable control parameters of the environment. In some implementations, the control knob is s(1−s), where s=t/t_(T); and a programmable control parameter of the environment is the temperature T.

Accordingly, the Hamiltonian H_(tot) for the combined QA-QG system in the chip 100 is:

H _(tot) =I(t)H _(i) +G(t)H _(G) +P(t)H _(p)

where I(t), G(t), and P(t) describe the general time-dependency of global control parameters. In this Hamiltonian, the initial Hamiltonian is:

$H_{i} = {\sum\limits_{i}^{N}\sigma_{i}^{x}}$

The problem Hamiltonian H_(p) is:

$H_{p} = {{- {\sum\limits_{i}^{N}{h_{i}\sigma_{i}^{z}}}} + {\sum\limits_{ij}^{N}{J_{ij}\sigma_{i}^{z}\sigma_{j}^{z}}}}$

and the QG Hamiltonian H_(G) is:

${H_{G} = {H_{GF} + H_{GA}}}{H_{GF} = {{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N_{G}}{h_{i}^{G}\sigma_{i}^{z}}} + {\sum\limits_{{ij} = 1}^{N_{G}}{J_{ij}^{G}\sigma_{i}^{z}\sigma_{j}^{z}}}}}{H_{GA} = {\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N_{G}}{\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{N_{A}}{J_{ij}^{GA}\sigma_{i}^{z}\sigma_{j}^{z}}}}}$

where H_(GF) is the free Hamiltonian of QG, and H_(GA) the interaction Hamiltonian of QG and QA. Note that N_(G) and N_(A) are the total number of QG and QA qubits respectively. As an example, the total Hamiltonian can have the following explicit global time-dependency:

H _(tot) t=(1−t/t _(T))H _(i) +t/t _(T)(1−t/t _(T))H _(G)+(t/t _(T))H _(p).

Programming the Quantum Hardware

For a given problem and its corresponding problem Hamiltonian H_(p), a QG is determined to improve the ground state fidelity of the QA without diagonalizing H_(p). Various QG realizations can be repeated to improve knowledge about the computational outcomes.

In some implementations, a QG is determined such that before a system characterized by H_(total) experiences a quantum phase transition, the QG Hamiltonian H_(QG) acts to suppress excitations of the QA. In particular, the QG is out of resonance with the average phonon energy of the bath, which creates a mismatch between the average phonon energy and average energy level spacing of the combined QA and QG, or H_(tot) to reduce unwanted excitations. After the system undergoes the quantum phase transition, the QG Hamiltonian H_(QG) acts to enhance relaxation of the QA from any excited state to the ground state of H_(tot). In particular, the average energy level spacing of H_(tot) is in resonance with the average phonon energy. The QG enhances thermal fluctuations by creating an overlap between the spectral densities of the system and its bath. The thermal fluctuations can facilitate the QA to reach the ground state of H_(tot) at a high relaxation rate and prevent the QA from being prematurely frozen at an excited state due to quantum localization.

An example of desirable QG functions is shown in FIG. 3. The energy levels E₀, E₁, E₂, (not shown) of H_(total) are plotted as a function of time t. At t=0, H_(total) is H₁, and at t=t_(T), H_(total) is H_(p). During a quantum annealing process from t=0 to t=t_(T), the QA approximately experiences an initialization phase from t=0 to t=t₁, an excitation phase from t=t₁ to t=t₂, a relaxation phase from t=t₂ to t=t₃, and a freezing phase from t=t₃ to t=t_(T). The time t₂ can correspond to a time at which a quantum phase transition occurs in a system characterized by H_(total). During the excitation phase, the QG increases, as indicated by arrows 300, 302, the energy spacing between adjacent energy levels Δε_(i), such as Δε_(i)=E₂−E₁ and Δε₀=E₁−E₀, such that the increased energy spacing is much larger than the average phonon energy. During the relaxation phase, the QG adjusts the energy spacing Δε₀, Δε₁, . . . to be comparable to the average phone energy to facilitate relaxation of the QA from excited states to lower energy states or the ground state, as indicated by arrows 304, 306, 308, 310.

The interplay of the three Hamiltonians, H_(i), H_(p), and H_(QG) over time in different phases of the quantum annealing process is schematically shown in FIG. 4. The control parameters I(t), P(t), and G(t) control the shapes of the curves for the corresponding Hamiltonians. In this example, I(t) and P(t) are linear and G(t) is parabolic.

In addition, the QG can be chosen to allow the QA of H_(tot) to steadily evolve over the QA schedule and reach a final state that has a maximum overlap with the ground state of H_(p). Ideally, the ground state fidelity of the QA at time t_(T) is 1. However, unity fidelity is hard to achieve within a finite period of time. Other than at time 0 and at time t_(T), the QA of H_(tot) is in a mixed state of the combined H_(p), H_(i), and H_(QG). The evolution of the QA can be expressed as:

|ε₀ ^(i)

ε₀ ^(i)|→ρ_(A)(t)→|ε₀ ^(p)

ε₀ ^(p)|

where |ε₀ ^(i)

is the state of the QA at time 0, |ε₀ ^(p)

is the state of the QA at time t_(T), and ρ_(A)(t) is the density function of the QA at other times. By assigning a probability, e.g., using a probability mass function, to each state |ε₀ ^(p)

, the evolution of the QA can be further expressed as:

${{ɛ_{0}^{i}\rangle}{\langle ɛ_{0}^{i}}}->{{\rho \; {A(t)}}->{\sum\limits_{k}{{f^{G}(k)}{ɛ_{k}^{p}\rangle}{\langle ɛ_{k}^{p}}}}}$

where f^(G)(k) is the probability mass function, k=0, 1, . . . , and corresponds to quantum state levels, and Σ_(h)f^(G)(k)=1. If the ground state fidelity is 1, then f^(G)(0)=1, and f^(G) (k≠0)=0. As described above, such a unity fidelity is hard to realize. Instead, a desirable QG can be selected to provide an exponential distribution function as:

f ^(G)(k,λ _(G))=

ε_(k) ^(p)|ρ_(A)(t _(T),λ_(G))|ε_(k) ^(p)

where λ_(G) defines the distribution of a QG family suitable for use with H_(p). The probability mass function can be any probability distribution function. Examples include Poisson distribution functions, Levy distribution functions, and Boltzmann distribution functions.

To determine a QG with desirable functions for a problem, including those functions described above with reference to FIGS. 3 and 4, one or more techniques can be used, including, for example, open quantum system models, random matrix theory, quantum Monte Carlo, and machine learning. An example process 500 for determining a QG is shown in FIG. 5, which can be performed by a classical processor, such as a classical computer, or a quantum processor, or a combination of them.

In the process 500, information about energy states of H_(total) (502) are generally unknown. Thus, finding the global optimal QG is as at least as hard as solving the problem Hamiltonian itself. However, applications of QG in this context are highly robust to variations in its microscopic degrees of freedom. In some implementations the approach is to introduce a mean-field description of QG, such as a random matrix theory model that relies on a few effective control parameters. Then, a hybrid of unsupervised and supervised classical machine learning algorithms may be used to pre-train and train the macroscopic degrees of freedoms of QG. In order to generate sufficient training data for learning steps, state-of-art classical (metaheuristic) solvers may be used to sample from energy eigenfunction properties of the problem Hamiltonian that may include classical solvers such as Path-integral Monte Carlo, Diffusion Monte Carlo, Spin-vector Monte Carlo, Markov-Chain Monte Carlo, Simulated Annealing, Tabu search, large neighborhood search, and cluster updates. Training data can also be generated by previous generations of quantum processors, if available, including quantum annealers and gate-model quantum computers. The ansatz time at which the phase transition takes place can be chosen as the approximation t=t_(T)/2, and can be further fine-tuned during the learning procedures to enhance the fidelity of the spectral properties of QA with the Boltzmann distribution of the problem Hamiltonian that have been already sampled by a chosen classical solver.

For a given problem Hamiltonian in training data, some useful information regarding the energy spectrum of the total Hamiltonian can be estimated, including approximate energy levels E_(t), the energy level spacings Δε_(i), the distribution of the energy level spacings, and the average energy level spacing Δε. In some implementations, the average energy level spacing at time t is estimated as:

$\overset{\_}{{\Delta ɛ}(t)} = \frac{2{\sum\limits_{i = 0}^{N - 1}{{{ɛ_{i}(t)} - {ɛ_{j}(t)}}}}}{N\left( {N - 1} \right)}$

where ε_(i)(t) is the energy of the i^(th) instantaneous eigenstate energy of H_(total), and N is the total number of eigenstates.

Also in the process 500, the average phonon energy of the bath in which the system characterized by H_(total) is located can be calculated or experimentally measured (504). In approximation, the average phonon energy can be taken as kT, where k is the Boltzmann constant, and T is the temperature. The average phonon energy can also be calculated in a more precise manner. For example, an open quantum system model of dynamics, such as the Lindblad formalism, can be selected for the calculation. The selection can be based on calibration data or quantum tomography of the quantum processor. Under the open quantum system model, the average phonon energy of a bath, in which a system represented by H_(total) is located, at any given temperature T can be defined as:

${\overset{\_}{\omega} = \frac{\sum\limits_{0}^{\infty}{\omega \; {J(\omega)}d\; {\omega/\left( {e^{\omega/{kT}} - 1} \right)}}}{\sum\limits_{0}^{\infty}{{J(\omega)}d\; {\omega/\left( {e^{\omega/{kT}} - 1} \right)}}}},$

where J(ω) can be the Omhic spectral density, i.e.,

${{J(\omega)} = {{\lambda\omega}\; e^{- \frac{\omega}{\gamma}}}},$

the super-Omhic spectral density, i.e.,

${{J(\omega)} = {\lambda \; \omega^{3}e^{- \frac{\omega}{\gamma}}}},$

the Drude-Lorentz spectral density, i.e.,

${{J(\omega)} = \frac{2\; \lambda \; \omega \; \gamma}{\omega^{2} + \gamma^{2}}},$

or a flat spectral distribution, i.e., J(ω)=1. In these equations, λ is the reorganization energy and y is the bath frequency cut-off.

A probability mass function for the ground state fidelity of the QA is selected (506). Based on the obtained information, training data, the calculated average phonon energy, and the selected probability mass function, the process 500 then determines (508) a QG distribution for H_(p). For example, the QG distribution can be represented by an exponential family, such as a Gaussian unitary ensemble, of random matrices selected using a random matrix theory model. The average energy level spacing Δg and the maximum and minimum energy eigenvalues of the QG or H_(QG) are determined to allow the QG to function as desired. In particular, in the second phase of the QA schedule, e.g., during time t₁ to t₂ shown in FIG. 3, the average energy level spacing of the QG is chosen such that:

Δε_(g) >>ω,

Where Δε_(g) is the modified average energy level of QA and QG. This choice increases the energy level spacing of H_(total) such that the combined energy level spacing of H_(tot) is much larger than the average phonon energy. Accordingly, possible excitations of the QA to a higher energy state by thermal fluctuation are suppressed. In addition, the QG is also selected such that in the third phase of the QA schedule, e.g., during time t₂ to t₃ shown in FIG. 3, the average energy level spacing of the QG satisfies:

Δε_(g) ≈ω

This choice allows the energy level spacing of H_(total) to be similar to the thermal fluctuation. The QA can relax to a lower energy state or the ground state at a high rate. The selected exponential family can be parameterized with respect to the controllable parameters, such as the coupling between qubits, of the quantum hardware.

In some implementations, a deep neural network is used to represent the QG-QA system or the system characterized by H_(tot), and stochastic gradient descent is used to train the QG distribution. As an example, the training is done by selecting a statistically meaningful number, e.g., 1000, of random matrices from a parameterized exponential family that can in average generate path-integral Monte-Carlo outputs, within the desired probability mass function for a given H_(total) of interest. In some implementations, the training can start with an initial QG distribution selected based on the desired average combined energy level spacing Δε_(g) discussed above.

FIG. 6 shows an example process 600 in which a control system programs QA hardware, such as a quantum processor, for the QA hardware to perform an artificial intelligence task. The control system includes one or more classical, i.e., non-quantum, computers, and may also include a quantum computer. The task is translated into a machine learning optimization problem, which is represented in a machine-readable form.

The control system receives (602) the machine-readable machine learning optimization problem. The control system encodes (606) the optimization problem into the energy spectrum of an engineered H_(total). The encoding is based on structure of the QA hardware, such as the couplings between qubits. An example of H_(total) is the Ising Hamiltonian H_(SG), and the encoding determines the values for the parameters and J_(ij). The encoded information, such as and is provided to the QA hardware, which receives (620) the information as initialization parameters for the hardware. To stabilize the QA during a quantum annealing process to be performed by the QA hardware, the control system further devises (608) a QG, e.g., by selecting one QG from a QG distribution determined using the process 500 of FIG. 5. The devised QG is characterized by control parameters including h_(i) ^(G), J_(ij) ^(G) J_(ij) ^(GA) which are sent to the QA hardware to program the QA hardware.

The QA hardware receives (620) the initialization parameters, such as h_(i) and J_(ij), and also receives (622) the control parameters for the QG, such as h_(i) ^(G), J_(ij) ^(G), J_(ij) ^(GA), and is programmed and initialized by the control system according to the received initialization parameters and the ansatz for QG parameters. The QA hardware implements (624) the quantum annealing schedule to obtain eigenstates of the combined QA-QG system characterized by H_(tot). The solution to the machine learning optimization problem is encoded in these eigenstates. After a predetermined amount of time, the QA schedule ends and the QA hardware provides (626) an output represented by the eigenstates and their corresponding energy spectra. The output can be read by the control system or by another classical computer or quantum computer. The predetermined amount of time can be in the order of 1/(Δε_(g) )². However, shorter or longer periods of time can be used. A shorter time period may provide efficiency, and a longer time period may provide a high ground state fidelity.

As described above, in the output provided by the QA hardware, the ground state fidelity of the QA is generally smaller than 1. When the fidelity is smaller than 1, the one-time output provided by the QA hardware may not accurately encode the solution to the problem. In some implementations, the QA hardware implements the QA schedule multiple times, using the same QG or different QGs provided by the control system that have different sets of control parameters, such as h_(i) ^(G), J_(ij) ^(G), J_(ij) ^(GA), selected from the same QG distribution determined for the problem, to provide multiple outputs. The multiple outputs can be statistically analyzed and the problem or the artificial intelligent task can be resolved or performed based on the statistical results.

In particular, in the process 600, after the control system receives and stores (610) the output provided by the QA hardware, the control system determines (612) whether the QA hardware has completed the predetermined number of iterations of QA schedules. If not, then the control system returns to the step 608 by devising another QG, which can be the same as the previously used QG or a different QG selected from the previously determined QG distribution. The QA hardware receives (622) another set of control parameters for the QG and is re-programmed by the control system based on this set of control parameters and the previously determined initialization parameters that encode the problem. The QA schedule is implemented again (624) and another output is provided (626). If the QA hardware has completed the predetermined number of iterations of QA schedule, then the control system or another data processing system statistically processes (614) all outputs to provide solutions to the problem. The predetermined number of iterations can be 100 iterations or more, or 1000 iterations or more. In some implementations, the number of iterations can be chosen in connection with the length of the QA schedule, so that the process 600 can be performed with high efficiency and provide solutions to the problems with high accuracy. For example, when the length of each QA schedule is relatively short, e.g., shorter than 1/(Δε_(g) )², the predetermined number of iterations can be chosen to be relatively large, e.g., 1000 iterations or more. In other situations when the length of each QA schedule is relatively long, e.g., longer than 1/(Δε_(g) )², the predetermined number of iterations can be chosen to be relatively small, e.g., less than 1000 iterations.

Embodiments of the digital, i.e., non quantum, subject matter and the digital functional operations described in this specification can be implemented in digital electronic circuitry, in tangibly-embodied computer software or firmware, in computer hardware, including the structures disclosed in this specification and their structural equivalents, or in combinations of one or more of them. Embodiments of the digital subject matter described in this specification can be implemented as one or more computer programs, i.e., one or more modules of computer program instructions encoded on a tangible non transitory storage medium for execution by, or to control the operation of, data processing apparatus. The computer storage medium can be a machine-readable storage device, a machine-readable storage substrate, a random or serial access memory device, or a combination of one or more of them. Alternatively or in addition, the program instructions can be encoded on an artificially generated propagated signal, e.g., a machine-generated electrical, optical, or electromagnetic signal, that is generated to encode information for transmission to suitable receiver apparatus for execution by a data processing apparatus.

The term “data processing apparatus” refers to digital data processing hardware and encompasses all kinds of apparatus, devices, and machines for processing data, including by way of example a programmable digital processor, a digital computer, or multiple digital processors or computers. The apparatus can also be, or further include, special purpose logic circuitry, e.g., an FPGA (field programmable gate array) or an ASIC (application specific integrated circuit). The apparatus can optionally include, in addition to hardware, code that creates an execution environment for computer programs, e.g., code that constitutes processor firmware, a protocol stack, a database management system, an operating system, or a combination of one or more of them.

A computer program, which may also be referred to or described as a program, software, a software application, a module, a software module, a script, or code, can be written in any form of programming language, including compiled or interpreted languages, or declarative or procedural languages, and it can be deployed in any form, including as a stand alone program or as a module, component, subroutine, or other unit suitable for use in a digital computing environment. A computer program may, but need not, correspond to a file in a file system. A program can be stored in a portion of a file that holds other programs or data, e.g., one or more scripts stored in a markup language document, in a single file dedicated to the program in question, or in multiple coordinated files, e.g., files that store one or more modules, sub programs, or portions of code. A computer program can be deployed to be executed on one computer or on multiple computers that are located at one site or distributed across multiple sites and interconnected by a data communication network.

The processes and logic flows described in this specification can be performed by one or more programmable digital computers, operating with one or more quantum processors, as appropriate, executing one or more computer programs to perform functions by operating on input data and generating output. The processes and logic flows can also be performed by, and apparatus can also be implemented as, special purpose logic circuitry, e.g., an FPGA or an ASIC, or by a combination of special purpose logic circuitry and one or more programmed computers. For a system of one or more digital computers to be “configured to” perform particular operations or actions means that the system has installed on it software, firmware, hardware, or a combination of them that in operation cause the system to perform the operations or actions. For one or more computer programs to be configured to perform particular operations or actions means that the one or more programs include instructions that, when executed by digital data processing apparatus, cause the apparatus to perform the operations or actions.

Digital computers suitable for the execution of a computer program can be based on general or special purpose microprocessors or both, or any other kind of central processing unit. Generally, a central processing unit will receive instructions and data from a read only memory or a random access memory or both. The essential elements of a computer are a central processing unit for performing or executing instructions and one or more memory devices for storing instructions and data. The central processing unit and the memory can be supplemented by, or incorporated in, special purpose logic circuitry. Generally, a digital computer will also include, or be operatively coupled to receive data from or transfer data to, or both, one or more mass storage devices for storing data, e.g., magnetic, magneto optical disks, or optical disks. However, a computer need not have such devices.

Computer readable media suitable for storing computer program instructions and data include all forms of non volatile memory, media and memory devices, including by way of example semiconductor memory devices, e.g., EPROM, EEPROM, and flash memory devices; magnetic disks, e.g., internal hard disks or removable disks; magneto optical disks; and CD ROM and DVD-ROM disks.

Control of the various systems described in this specification, or portions of them, can be implemented in a computer program product that includes instructions that are stored on one or more non-transitory machine-readable storage media, and that are executable on one or more digital processing devices. The systems described in this specification, or portions of them, can each be implemented as an apparatus, method, or electronic system that may include one or more digital processing devices and memory to store executable instructions to perform the operations described in this specification.

While this specification contains many specific implementation details, these should not be construed as limitations on the scope of what may be claimed, but rather as descriptions of features that may be specific to particular embodiments. Certain features that are described in this specification in the context of separate embodiments can also be implemented in combination in a single embodiment. Conversely, various features that are described in the context of a single embodiment can also be implemented in multiple embodiments separately or in any suitable subcombination. Moreover, although features may be described above as acting in certain combinations and even initially claimed as such, one or more features from a claimed combination can in some cases be excised from the combination, and the claimed combination may be directed to a subcombination or variation of a subcombination.

Similarly, while operations are depicted in the drawings in a particular order, this should not be understood as requiring that such operations be performed in the particular order shown or in sequential order, or that all illustrated operations be performed, to achieve desirable results. In certain circumstances, multitasking and parallel processing may be advantageous. Moreover, the separation of various system modules and components in the embodiments described above should not be understood as requiring such separation in all embodiments, and it should be understood that the described program components and systems can generally be integrated together in a single software product or packaged into multiple software products.

Particular embodiments of the subject matter have been described. Other embodiments are within the scope of the following claims. For example, the actions recited in the claims can be performed in a different order and still achieve desirable results. As one example, the processes depicted in the accompanying figures do not necessarily require the particular order shown, or sequential order, to achieve desirable results. In some cases, multitasking and parallel processing may be advantageous. 

1. (canceled)
 2. A computer implemented method comprising: receiving, by a control system, a machine-readable machine learning optimization problem; encoding, by the control system, the machine-readable machine learning optimization problem into an energy spectrum of a Hamiltonian, wherein the Hamiltonian comprises a problem sub-Hamiltonian and a quantum governor sub-Hamiltonian, the encoding comprising determining values of parameters included in the problem sub-Hamiltonian; selecting values of parameters included in the quantum governor sub-Hamiltonian; initializing and programming, by the control system, quantum annealing hardware using i) the determined values of parameters included in the problem sub-Hamiltonian and ii) the selected values of parameters included in the quantum governor sub-Hamiltonian; and receiving, by the control system and from the quantum annealing hardware, an output representing eigenstates of the Hamiltonian and corresponding energy spectra in machine-readable form, wherein the eigenstates and corresponding energy spectra encode a solution to the machine learning optimization problem.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the parameters included in the problem sub-Hamiltonian parameters included in the quantum governor sub-Hamiltonian define a structure of the quantum annealing hardware.
 4. The method of claim 3, wherein the structure of the quantum annealing hardware comprises couplings between superconducting units included in the quantum annealing hardware.
 5. The method of claim 2, wherein the problem sub-Hamiltonian is given by ${P(t)}\left( {{- {\sum\limits_{i}^{N}{h_{i}\sigma_{i}^{z}}}} + {\sum\limits_{ij}^{N}{J_{ij}\sigma_{i}^{z}\sigma_{j}^{z}}}} \right)$ wherein i represents an i^(th) superconducting unit, h_(i) and J_(ij) represent the parameters included in the problem sub-Hamiltonian and take real values that are associated with a coupling strength between superconducting units, P(t) represents a time-dependent control parameter, and represents a Pauli-z operator for superconducting unit i.
 6. The method of claim 2, wherein the quantum governor sub-Hamiltonian is given by ${G(t)}\left( {{- {\sum\limits_{i}^{N}{h_{i}^{G}\sigma_{i}^{z}}}} + {\sum\limits_{ij}^{N}{J_{ij}^{G}\sigma_{i}^{z}\sigma_{j}^{z}}} + {\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N_{G}}{\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{N_{A}}{J_{ij}^{GA}\sigma_{i}^{z}\sigma_{j}^{z}}}}} \right)$ wherein i represents an i^(th) superconducting unit, h_(i) ^(G), J_(ij) ^(G) and J_(ij) ^(GA) represent the parameters included in the quantum governor sub-Hamiltonian and take real values that are associated with a coupling strength between superconducting units, G(t) represents a time-dependent control parameter, and σ_(i) ^(z) represents a Pauli-z operator for superconducting unit i.
 7. The method of claim 2, wherein the Hamiltonian is given by $H_{tot} = {{{I(t)}{\sum\limits_{i}^{N}\sigma_{i}^{x}}} + {{G(t)}\left( {{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N_{G}}{h_{i}^{G}\sigma_{i}^{z}}} + {\sum\limits_{i,{j = 1}}^{N_{G}}{J_{ij}^{G}\sigma_{i}^{z}\sigma_{j}^{z}}} + {\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N_{G}}{\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{N_{A}}{J_{ij}^{GA}\sigma_{i}^{z}\sigma_{j}^{z}}}}} \right)} + {{P(t)}\left( {{- {\sum\limits_{i}^{N}{h_{i}\sigma_{i}^{z}}}} + {\sum\limits_{ij}^{N}{J_{ij}\sigma_{i}^{z}\sigma_{j}^{z}}}} \right)}}$ wherein i represents an i^(th) superconducting unit, h_(i) and J_(ij) represent the parameters included in the problem sub-Hamiltonian and take real values that are associated with a coupling strength between superconducting units, h_(i) ^(G), J_(ij) ^(G) and J_(ij) ^(GA) represent the parameters included in the quantum governor sub-Hamiltonian and take real values that are associated with a coupling strength between superconducting units, I(t), G(t), and P(t) represent time-dependent control parameters, and σ_(i) ^(x), σ_(i) ^(z) represent Pauli-x and Pauli-z operators for superconducting unit i.
 8. The method of claim 2, further comprising implementing, by the programmed and initialized quantum annealing hardware, a quantum annealing schedule to obtain the eigenstates of the Hamiltonian.
 9. The method of claim 8, further comprising: providing, by the quantum annealing hardware and to the control system, an output representing the eigenstates of the Hamiltonian and corresponding energy spectra in machine-readable form.
 10. The method of claim 2, further comprising: implementing, by the programmed and initialized quantum annealing hardware, the quantum annealing schedule a predetermined number of times to obtain multiple outputs, wherein each output comprises eigenstates of the Hamiltonian; and statistically analyzing, by the control system, the multiple outputs to obtain a solution to the machine learning optimization problem.
 11. The method of claim 2, further comprising: receiving and storing, by the control system and from the quantum annealing hardware, eigenstates of the Hamiltonian; determining whether the quantum annealing hardware has completed a predetermine number of iterations of the quantum annealing schedule; in response to determining that the quantum annealing hardware has not completed a predetermined number of iterations of the quantum annealing schedule, selecting a second set of values of parameters included in the quantum governor sub-Hamiltonian; initializing and re-programming, by the control system, quantum annealing hardware using i) the determined values of parameters included in the problem sub-Hamiltonian and ii) the selected second set of values of parameters included in the quantum governor sub-Hamiltonian; and receiving, by the control system and from the initialized and re-programmed quantum annealing hardware, eigenstates of the Hamiltonian and corresponding energy spectra in machine-readable form.
 12. The method of claim 11, further comprising, in response to determining that the quantum annealing hardware has completed a predetermine number of iterations of the quantum annealing schedule, statistically processing, by the control system, obtained eigenstates of the Hamiltonian and corresponding energy spectra to compute a solution to the machine learning optimization problem.
 13. The method of claim 11, wherein the predetermined number of iterations is selected based on a length of the quantum annealing schedule.
 14. The method of claim 11, wherein the selected values of parameters included in the quantum governor sub-Hamiltonian comprise i) the previously used values or ii) new values.
 15. The method of claim 2, wherein selecting values of parameters included in the quantum governor sub-Hamiltonian comprises: estimating, by the control system and based on the problem sub-Hamiltonian, information representing an energy spectrum of the Hamiltonian; calculating, by the control system and based on the energy spectrum of the Hamiltonian, an average phonon energy of a bath in which a quantum system characterized by the Hamiltonian is located; selecting, by the control system, a probability mass function for the ground state fidelity for the problem sub-Hamiltonian; determining, by the control system and based on the information representing an energy spectrum of the Hamiltonian, calculated average phonon energy and selected probability mass function, a quantum governor distribution for the problem sub-Hamiltonian; and selecting, by the control system, a quantum governor sub-Hamiltonian from the quantum governor distribution.
 16. A control system for programming quantum annealing hardware, the control system comprising: one or more computers; and one or more computer-readable media coupled to the one or more computers having instructions stored thereon which, when executed by the one or more computers, cause the one or more computers to perform operations comprising: receiving a machine-readable machine learning optimization problem; encoding the machine-readable machine learning optimization problem into an energy spectrum of a Hamiltonian, wherein the Hamiltonian comprises a problem sub-Hamiltonian and a quantum governor sub-Hamiltonian, the encoding comprising determining values of parameters included in the problem sub-Hamiltonian; selecting values of parameters included in the quantum governor sub-Hamiltonian; initializing and programming the quantum annealing hardware using i) the determined values of parameters included in the problem sub-Hamiltonian and ii) the selected values of parameters included in the quantum governor sub-Hamiltonian; and receiving, from the quantum annealing hardware, an output representing eigenstates of the Hamiltonian and corresponding energy spectra in machine-readable form, wherein the eigenstates and corresponding energy spectra encode a solution to the machine learning optimization problem.
 17. The control system of claim 16, wherein the parameters included in the problem sub-Hamiltonian parameters included in the quantum governor sub-Hamiltonian define a structure of the quantum annealing hardware.
 18. The control system of claim 17, wherein the structure of the quantum annealing hardware comprises couplings between superconducting units included in the quantum annealing hardware.
 19. The control system of claim 16, wherein the problem sub-Hamiltonian is given by ${P(t)}\left( {{- {\sum\limits_{i}^{N}{h_{i}\sigma_{i}^{z}}}} + {\sum\limits_{ij}^{N}{I_{ij}\sigma_{i}^{s}\sigma_{j}^{2}}}} \right)$ wherein i represents an i^(th) superconducting unit, h_(i) and J_(ij) represent the parameters included in the problem sub-Hamiltonian and take real values that are associated with a coupling strength between superconducting units, P(t) represents a time-dependent control parameter, and σ_(i) ^(z) represents a Pauli-z operator for superconducting unit t.
 20. The control system of claim 16, wherein the quantum governor sub-Hamiltonian is given by ${G(t)}\left( {{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N_{G}}{h_{i}^{G}\sigma_{i}^{z}}} + {\sum\limits_{i,{j = 1}}^{N_{G}}{J_{ij}^{G}\sigma_{i}^{z}\sigma_{j}^{z}}} + {\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N_{G}}{\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{N_{A}}{J_{ij}^{GA}\sigma_{i}^{z}\sigma_{j}^{z}}}}} \right)$ wherein i represents an i^(th) superconducting unit, h_(i) ^(G), J_(ij) ^(G) and J_(ij) ^(GA) represent the parameters included in the quantum governor sub-Hamiltonian and take real values that are associated with a coupling strength between superconducting units, G(t) represents a time-dependent control parameter, and σ_(i) ^(z) represents a Pauli-z operator for superconducting unit i.
 21. The control system of claim 16, wherein the Hamiltonian is given by $H_{tot} = {{{I(t)}{\sum\limits_{i}^{N}\sigma_{i}^{x}}} + {{G(t)}\left( {{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N_{G}}{h_{i}^{G}\sigma_{i}^{z}}} + {\sum\limits_{ij}^{N}{J_{ij}\sigma_{i}^{z}\sigma_{j}^{z}}}} \right)} + {{P(t)}\left( {{- {\sum\limits_{i}^{N}{h_{i}\sigma_{i}^{z}}}} + {\sum\limits_{ij}^{N}{J_{ij}\sigma_{i}^{z}\sigma_{j}^{z}}}} \right)}}$ wherein i represents an i^(th) superconducting unit, h_(i) and J_(ij) represent the parameters included in the problem sub-Hamiltonian and take real values that are associated with a coupling strength between superconducting units, h_(i) ^(G), J_(ij) ^(G) and J_(ij) ^(GA) represent the parameters included in the quantum governor sub-Hamiltonian and take real values that are associated with a coupling strength between superconducting units, I(t), G(t), and P(t) represent time-dependent control parameters, and σ_(i) ^(x), σ_(i) ^(z) represent Pauli-x and Pauli-z operators for superconducting unit i.
 22. The control system of claim 16, wherein selecting values of parameters included in the quantum governor sub-Hamiltonian comprises: estimating, by the control system and based on the problem sub-Hamiltonian, information representing an energy spectrum of the Hamiltonian; calculating, by the control system and based on the energy spectrum of the Hamiltonian, an average phonon energy of a bath in which a quantum system characterized by the Hamiltonian is located; selecting, by the control system, a probability mass function for the ground state fidelity for the problem sub-Hamiltonian; determining, by the control system and based on the information representing an energy spectrum of the Hamiltonian, calculated average phonon energy and selected probability mass function, a quantum governor distribution for the problem sub-Hamiltonian; and selecting, by the control system, a quantum governor sub-Hamiltonian from the quantum governor distribution. 